美国赌城拉斯维加斯10月1日晚间发生史上最严重枪击案,事件已经导致至少59死527伤。美联社10月2日最新消息称,美国联邦调查局称,此次袭击与国际恐怖主义无关。
美国总统特朗普当地时间10月2日上午10点30分就此发表讲话称,这是“完全恶魔的行为”。特朗普表示,将降半旗致哀。 特朗普表示,将于周三访问拉斯维加斯,并看望受害者家人。
截至目前,此次枪击案已造成59人死亡,527伤。 报道称,枪手为64岁的史蒂芬·帕多克,其在警察进入房间前就已开枪自杀。警察在其房间里已发现至少10把步枪。
正文
如果说“持枪权”的说法只是有争议的曲解的话,所谓美国宪法赋予人民“推翻暴政的权利”则完全是捏造。无论是美国联邦宪法正文还是所有的修正案,都没有任何条款说人民有“推翻暴政的权利”。而“持枪权”是为了保证人民“推翻暴政的权利”则更是异想天开。
所谓“推翻暴政的权利”原始出处是《独立宣言》而非联邦宪法。《独立宣言》颁布于1776年。其内容更大程度上是为了给北美脱离英国独立所做的合法性辩护。和后来的联邦宪法相比,其政治宣示的色彩更重。《独立宣言》颁布后,紧随其后制定的《邦联条例》确立的美国政体是松散的邦联。而美国联邦宪法则制定于1787年,确立的政体是联邦。所以说《独立宣言》和联邦宪法适用的根本不是同一个政体。《独立宣言》也并非联邦宪法的一部分。因此不能把《独立宣言》中的内容说成是联邦宪法的规定。
此外《独立宣言》与联邦宪法的制定背景也大相径庭。《独立宣言》的背景是北美殖民地与宗主国之间的矛盾激化。殖民地急需一个武装反抗的合法性理由。此时出台的《独立宣言》是革命者反抗当权者的一篇檄文,其主旨是强调反抗强权,破坏旧秩序。而联邦宪法出台背景是各州陷入财政困难,个别州如马萨诸塞还爆发大规模群体性事件,如谢斯起义。各州痛感邦联的国家机器不够强大,难以团结各州应对各种挑战。因此制定联邦宪法,改松散的邦联为权力更加集中的联邦,从而更有效地维持秩序,解决纠纷,镇压叛乱。联邦宪法的基调就是建设强势政府,维持新秩序。镇压群体性事件的需要正是催生联邦宪法的因素之一,联邦宪法又怎可能赋予人民“推翻暴政的权利”?
从现行美国法律来看,也不存在什么人民“推翻暴政的权利”
现行美国法典18 U.S.C. 2383明确规定:任何人,鼓励、着手、协助或参与任何针对美国及其法律的叛乱或暴动,或对这种行为给予援助,则需判处罚金或10年以下监禁,或二者兼科;且不得为美国政府录用。[7]18 U.S.C 2385则规定:煽动或鼓励用暴力手段推翻或破坏美国政府,宣扬暴力推翻美国政府是合理合法的,都属于重罪;当判处罚金或20年以下监禁,或二者兼科;并在犯罪后5年内不得为任何政府机构录用。[8]此外在相关章节条款中,从未说过针对的是“暴政”就可以免罪。也就是说,不管美国政府是不是暴政,你试图用武力推翻它或宣扬用武力推翻它都将构成犯罪,并被处以刑罚。
这是联邦的法律,此外还有州的法律。其中很有特色的一个就是俄克拉荷马州的“红旗法”。俄克拉荷马州立法典Okla. Stat. tit. 21,§374规定:在游行示威中打红旗,宣扬无政府主义或宣扬对美国政府不忠,目的在于破坏美国政府、州政府及其法律的,属于重罪;当判处10年以下监禁,或一千美元以下罚款,或二者兼科。[9]
这些从联邦到州的法律都明确无误地表示了:美国人如果要用“持枪权”下的武器推翻美国政府,是要受到无情镇压的。现实中根本就不存在什么用“持枪权”来“推翻暴政的权利”。
有人可能会说:这只说明现实中联邦国会和州议会制定了这些法律,并不说明这些法律没有违宪。但事实上,这些法律中的一部分曾经因涉嫌违宪被起诉到联邦最高法院。如上述煽动颠覆国家政权罪的条款,就曾在1957年Yates v. United States一案中受到联邦最高法院的审查。最终联邦最高法院裁决该案中的刑事被告人并未构成该法所称的罪名,但同时却并没宣布该法违宪。这些明确镇压颠覆政权者的法律,经历了联邦最高法院的违宪审查却未被判决违宪,足以证明宪法并未赋予人民什么“推翻暴政的权利”。
此外从另一角度看,若一定要说这些镇压颠覆政权者的法律是违宪的,就意味着违反宪法的法律在美国长存半个世纪以上而未被废除。那无异于说美国宪法就是一纸空文。既然如此,就说明某些人极力赞美的所谓宪法赋予“推翻暴政的权利”,在美国的现实中纯属画饼。那么赞美它又有什么意义?
本文注释
[1] 该案判决书中相关原文为:“Before addressing the verbs “keep” and “bear,” we interpret their object: “Arms.” The 18th-century meaning is no different from the meaning today. The 1773 edition of Samuel Johnson’s dictionary defined “arms” as “weapons of offence, or armour of defence.” Dictionary of the English Language 107 (4th ed.) (hereinafter Johnson). Timothy Cunningham’s important 1771 legal dictionary defined “arms” as “any thing that a man wears for his defence, or takes into his hands, or useth in wrath to cast at or strike another.” 1 A New and Complete Law Dictionary (1771); see also N. Webster, American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) (reprinted 1989) (hereinafter Webster) (similar).” District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570, 581 (2007).
[2] 判决书中相关原文为:“In Heller, we held that the Second Amendment protects the right to possess a handgun in the home for the purpose of self-defense.” McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 742 (2010)
[3] 判决书中相关原文为: “Under any of the standards of scrutiny that we have applied to enumerated constitutional rights, banning from the home “the most preferred firearm in the nation to ‘keep’ and use for protection of one’s home and family,” would fail constitutional muster.” “Whatever the reason, handguns are the most popular weapon chosen by Americans for self-defense in the home, and a complete prohibition of their use is invalid.”District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570, 629 (2007).
[4] 判决书相关原文为: “(In Heller) we found that this right applies to handguns because they are "the most preferred firearm in the nation to 'keep' and use for protection of one's home and family” McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 742 (2010).
[5] 美国法典法条原文:18 USC 922 (o)
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (2), it shall be unlawful for any person to transfer or possess a machinegun.
(2) This subsection does not apply with respect to—
(A) a transfer to or by, or possession by or under the authority of, the United States or any department or agency thereof or a State, or a department, agency, or political subdivision thereof; or
(B) any lawful transfer or lawful possession of a machinegun that was lawfully possessed before the date this subsection takes effect.
[6] 美国法典法条原文:26 USC 5845 (b) Machinegun
The term “machinegun” means any weapon which shoots, is designed to shoot, or can be readily restored to shoot, automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger. The term shall also include the frame or receiver of any such weapon, any part designed and intended solely and exclusively, or combination of parts designed and intended, for use in converting a weapon into a machinegun, and any combination of parts from which a machinegun can be assembled if such parts are in the possession or under the control of a person.
[7] 美国法典法条原文:18 USC 2383 Rebellion or insurrection
Whoever incites, sets on foot, assists, or engages in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States or the laws thereof, or gives aid or comfort thereto, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both; and shall be incapable of holding any office under the United States.
[8] 美国法典法条原文:18 USC 2385 Advocating overthrow of Government
Whoever knowingly or willfully advocates, abets, advises, or teaches the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing or destroying the government of the United States or the government of any State, Territory, District or Possession thereof, or the government of any political subdivision therein, by force or violence, or by the assassination of any officer of any such government; or
Whoever, with intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of any such government, prints, publishes, edits, issues, circulates, sells, distributes, or publicly displays any written or printed matter advocating, advising, or teaching the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence, or attempts to do so; or
Whoever organizes or helps or attempts to organize any society, group, or assembly of persons who teach, advocate, or encourage the overthrow or destruction of any such government by force or violence; or becomes or is a member of, or affiliates with, any such society, group, or assembly of persons, knowing the purposes thereof—
Shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than twenty years, or both, and shall be ineligible for employment by the United States or any department or agency thereof, for the five years next following his conviction.
[9] 俄克拉荷马州州立法典相关法条原文:title 21. crimes and punishments
chapter 9 offenses related to flags
section 374 display of red flag or emblem of disloyalty
Any person in this state, who shall carry or cause to be carried, or publicly display any red flag or other emblem or banner, indicating disloyalty to the Government of the United States or a belief in anarchy or other political doctrines or beliefs, whose objects are either the disruption or destruction of organized government, or the defiance of the laws of the United States or of the State of Oklahoma, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and upon conviction shall be punished by imprisonment in the Penitentiary of the State of Oklahoma for a term not exceeding ten (10) years, or by a fine not exceeding One Thousand Dollars ($1,000.00) or by both such imprisonment and fine.